http://dx.doi.org/10.24016/2024.v10.439
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Psychometric properties of the sexual machismo scale (EMS-SEXISMO-12) in
adults
Propiedades psicométricas de la escala de machismo sexual
(EMS-SEXISMO-12) en adultos
Esther Gonzales Ortiz 1*
1 Universidad
César Vallejo, Lima, Peru
* Correspondence: egonzalesortiz96@gmail.com
Received: November 22, 2024 |
Revised: November 30, 2024 | Accepted: December 30,
2024 | Published Online: December 31, 2024
CITE IT AS:
Gonzales
Ortiz, E. (2024). Psychometric properties of the sexual machismo scale
(EMS-SEXISMO-12) in adults. Interacciones,
10, e439. http://dx.doi.org/10.24016/2024.v10.439
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Machismo is
explained as the system of beliefs, attitudes and behaviors based on the
polarization of the sexes and the superiority of the male gender. In the sexual
sphere, it is the control that is exercised over a woman in relation to the
expression of her sexuality under what is considered acceptable. Therefore, it
is considered convenient to have instruments to measure this variable. Objective:
The objective of this study was to determine the psychometric characteristics
of the sexual machismo scale (Ems-sexismo-12) in adults. Method: The
methodology used was of an applied nature, with a non-experimental approach and
instrumental design, applying the instrument to a sample made up of 530 adults
(M=308 and F=222) aged between 18 and 65 years, obtained through
non-probabilistic sampling by quotas of the districts of Piura. The content
validity, confirmatory factor analysis (WLSMV estimator), internal consistency
and reliability of the scale were evaluated. Results: The results showed
content validity in the items (Aiken's V > .70). For its part, after the confirmatory factor
analysis, a unidimensional structure was revealed with satisfactory
goodness-of-fit indices (CFI = .96; TLI = .95; RMSEA = .08; SRMR = .06). Likewise,
reliability is evidenced with acceptable values (ω = .83). Conclusion:
The EMS-12 scale proved to be a valid and reliable instrument for adults.
Keywords: Sexism, Adults,
psychometrics, validity, reliability.
RESUMEN
Introducción:
El machismo se explica como el sistema de creencias, actitudes y
comportamientos basados en la polarización de los sexos y la superioridad del
género masculino. En la esfera sexual, es el control que se ejerce sobre una
mujer en relación con la expresión de su sexualidad bajo lo que considera
aceptable. Por ello, se considera conveniente disponer de instrumentos para
medir esta variable. Objetivo: El objetivo de este estudio fue
determinar las características psicométricas de la escala de machismo sexual (Ems-sexismo-12)
en una muestra peruana. Método: La metodología utilizada fue de carácter
aplicado, con un enfoque no experimental y diseño instrumental, aplicando el
instrumento a una muestra conformada por 530 adultos (M=308 y V=222) con edades
entre 18 y 65 años, obtenida mediante muestreo no probabilístico por cuotas de
los distritos de Piura. Se evaluó la validez de contenido, análisis factorial
confirmatorio (estimador WLSMV), la consistencia interna y la confiabilidad de
la escala. Resultados: Los resultados mostraron validez de contenido en
los ítems (V de Aiken > .70). Por su
parte, tras el análisis factorial confirmatorio se reveló una estructura
unidimensional con índices de bondad de ajuste satisfactorios (CFI = .96; TLI =
.95; RMSEA = .08; SRMR = .06). Asimismo, la confiabilidad se evidenció con
valores aceptables (ω = .83). Conclusión: La escala EMS-12 demostró ser
un instrumento válido y confiable para adultos.
Palabras claves: Sexismo, Adultos, psicometría, validez, confiabilidad.
INTRODUCTION
Machismo is understood as the conviction, attitudes and behaviors that
are based on the polarization of the sexes or the radical distinction between
the feminine and the masculine and the conviction in the superiority of the
masculine in significant areas(Castañeda, 2019).
Sexual machismo is defined as the control of the man over a woman in
relation to the expression of her sexuality under what he considers acceptable;
It manifests itself through a lack of empathy, jealousy and even imposition
during the sexual relations (Silva and Zavala, 2020). Some authors consider
sexual machismo a manifestation of sexism that degrades women and is related to
several factors that negative affects the mental health (Mamani and Herrera,
2020).
Sexism can also be understood as a behavior that discriminates based on
the erroneous belief about the inferiority of women in general (Cameron in Moya
& Expósito, 2001). It occurs through jealous
behaviors, lack of empathy with the partner and sexual submission regardless of
the woman's desire (Silva and Zavala, 2020).
Glick and Fiske (1996) suggest that sexism is shown through two general
concepts represented by favorable and unfavorable attitudes towards women. In
this sense, unfavorable behaviors are considered hostile sexism, which
encompasses the classic and traditional form of sexism characterized by
antipathy and negative stereotypes towards women. Unlike benevolent sexism,
which despite being guided by positive feelings, are still sexist attitudes
that position women based on positive feelings such as protecting them and
providing them with the role of mother and wife. Likewise, benevolent sexism
could be used to cover up hostile sexism, however these may vary according to
the context in which the subjects relate. This theory considers a model that
constitutes hostile and benevolent sexism. These dimensions are classified into
paternalism, which refers to the distribution of power, also the gender
difference, and the last dimension that is related to sexuality when it focuses
on lack or dangerous sexuality, placing the man himself in a risk situation.
In our current reality, the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA, 2020)
in its report on the state of World Population announced that approximately 50%
of women in developing countries do not see their right to decide if they want
to maintain sexual relations with their partner, demonstrating how women lack
autonomy and freedom to choose the use of a contraceptive method or seek
medical attention.
On the other hand, the National Institute of Statistics (INEI, 2023)
indicates that 55.7% of women suffered some type of violence perpetrated by
their partner or romantic partner at some point in their lives. In Peru, sexist
positions are supported, as shown by the survey carried out by the Institute of
Peruvian Studies (IEP, 2023), which reflects that 37% of Peruvians consider it
appropriate for women to ask their partner's permission to go out, and a 14%
justify attacks by men.
The impact of machismo is not limited only to women since according to
the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO, 2019) the mortality rate in men is
related to masculinity behavior. dominant, which includes unprotected sexual
practices, violent relationships that can culminate in homicides, substance use
and other actions that put their health at risk. This is why the sexual
behaviors of a sexist man represent a risk factor for women, since it is
characterized by behaviors lacking responsibility, respect and consideration
(Díaz et al., 2010). Added to this, the culture associated with sexist gender
roles are factors associated with a greater risk of violence and HIV infection
for women (Cianelli et al., 2013).
Given this reality, the authors of the EMS-Sexism-12 scale considered it
pertinent to create a scale to evaluate beliefs and attitudes linked to
machismo to identify risk levels associated with the practice or tolerance of
it. This scale has research aimed at analysis and adaptation in international
contexts, such as Álvarez and Noreña (2023), who carried out an analysis of the
scale on machismo in a Colombian population; Camacho (2020) who conducted a
study on a sample of students from northern Mexico. On the other hand, in
Brazil López-Silva et al. (2020) conducted a study that sought to adapt a Scale
on Sexual Machism within the Brazilian population and
finally Herrera, et al. (2019) who analyzed psychometric properties of said
scale using a Chilean and Peruvian sample.
For its part, there are some contributions from national research such
as that of Huamani, et al (2023) who carried out a psychometric analysis in an
Arequipa population. Likewise, in the city of Lima, Sánchez (2022) investigated
the psychometric properties in the Lima population, as did Cajachagua
and Díaz (2022), who used a sample of young university students from the same
city. However, it is verified that despite the relevance of the topic, there
are few documents that have studied this variable within our context, which is
why the need arises to carry out an analysis on the validity of said instrument
on sexual machismo in a sample from Piura. Therefore, the following question
arises.
As described above, the present analysis mainly sought to determine
psychometric characteristics of the sexual machismo scale (Ems-sexismo-12) in
adults from the city of Piura, 2024. Likewise, specific purposes were sought
such as obtaining evidence based on the content of the EMS scale, also finding
evidence of the internal structure through confirmatory factor analysis of the
EMS and finally reviewing the reliability of the scale.
METHODS
Design
This study adopted a non-experimental design, which implies that no
stimulus or conditions other than their own are applied. Likewise, participants
are evaluated in their natural environment without modifying the situations or
the variable itself (Hernández-Sampieri & Mendoza, 2018). Likewise, this
study is considered instrumental or also known as psychometric, since within
this typology it is considered the study that examines psychological evaluation
instruments, whether they are new tests or to establish validation standards
(Ato, 2013).
Participants
The sample calculation was based on the general rule proposed by the APA
where it recommends working with samples of at least 300 participants as a
minimum sample (White, 2022). A non-probabilistic quota sampling was carried
out, including 530 adults, women (n= 308; 58.11%) and men (n= 222; 41.89%),
aged between 18 and 65 years, belonging to the 10 districts of the city of
Piura. Adults with cognitive or literacy difficulties and those who did not
consent to participation were excluded.
Instruments
The scale used was EMS-Sexism-12, developed by the authors Cecilia Díaz,
María Rosas and Mónica González in 2010 in Nuevo León-Mexico. The creation of
the scale was with the purpose of evaluating sexist behaviors, identifying
risks to sexual health and their levels of risk when tolerating sexism. This
scale demonstrated adequate levels of reliability through Cronbach's alpha
coefficient of 0.80. Furthermore, it showed adequate adjustment in CFI, GFI and
TLI validity indices, since they were greater than 0.9, an RMSEA value less
than .08 and a x2/df ratio = 0.3 (Díaz et al., 2010).
Procedure
Initially, a sample of 50 participants was taken for the purpose of a
pilot test and to verify the understanding of the items previously evaluated
through Aiken's V. Subsequently, we traveled to the city districts to access
the participants in person. Likewise, questionnaires were applied virtually
through Google forms, previously obtaining informed consent from each of the
participants.
Data analysis
A detailed examination was carried out, in which the relevant data were
analyzed and interpreted (Sánchez, et al., 2018). The present study was
subjected to the evaluation of seven judges specialized in the corresponding
area using Aiken's V coefficient, which allows verifying the relevance of the
items in relation to their content, based on the evaluations made by the
experts which, the closer Let the value be 1, it is understood as greater
content validity that will have greater content validity. (Ruiz and
Cornejo,2021)
The internal structure was evaluated through confirmatory factor
analysis (CFA), which allows identifying factors and analyzing their
relationship with each other (Segura, et al., 2014). In addition, indices that
indicated the level of fit to the model were
considered. Among them we find the square root of the mean of the squared
residuals (SRMR), for which a value of 0.08 is recommended for samples greater
than 100. Other relevant indices are the goodness of fit index (GFI), which
suggests a value greater than or equal to 0.93 (Cho et al, 2020), the RMSEA
index, whose value must be equal to or less than 0.05, the comparative fit
index (CFI), which must be greater than or equal to 0.95 (Lai, 2020), and the
Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), which is suggested to be greater than 0.90 (Xia &
Yang, 2019). Regarding incremental fit indices, such as the GFI, CFI and TLI,
it is established that a score equal to or greater than 0.90 is considered
adequate, while a score greater than or equal to 0.95 is considered optimal (Escobedo
Portillo et al., 2016). On the other
hand, there are authors who offer a more flexible perspective regarding the
main fit indices used in the analysis of models, Whittaker and Schumacker
(2022) argue that greater and equal scores consider scores greater than .90 for
CFI. and TLI as appropriate; On the other hand, RMSEA and SRMR indices less
than and equal to .80 are considered acceptable and those less than and equal
to .05 are considered optimal.
Ethical aspects
The research study presented is in accordance with the necessary
permissions to use the instrument from compliance with the ethical foundations
already established by the César Vallejo University (2022), which suggest
respecting and maintaining honesty throughout the research, as well as respect
for intellectual authorship and rights of researchers to avoid plagiarism. The
protocol was approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee of the César
Vallejo University. All participants were informed about the study and signed a
consent form before participating.
Likewise, the corresponding permissions will be requested from the
participants, respecting the guidelines recommended by the College of
Psychologists of Peru (2018), thus ensuring that the present study does not
entail unpleasant consequences or risks for the participants, and the
protection of their rights throughout the entire process. In addition, data
will be obtained through real processing respecting moral values and principles
during the study.
RESULTS
Table 1 presents the content validity of the
EMS-Sexism-12 in adults, assessed using Aiken's V coefficient. Seven judges
evaluated the items, determining all to be valid. The items demonstrated
adequate sufficiency, clarity, and relevance. Aiken's V is a measure used to
evaluate the relevance of items concerning their content based on the assessments
of multiple judges. The coefficient ranges from 0 to 1, with values closer to 1
indicating higher content validity. These results confirm the robust content
validity of the scale (Ruiz and Cornejo, 2021).
Table 1. Validity
indicators 95% CI for the scale items.
|
Items |
Sufficiency |
Clarity |
Coherence |
Relevance |
||||
|
IA |
p |
IA |
p |
IA |
p |
IA |
p |
|
|
1 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
|
2 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
|
3 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
|
4 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
|
5 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
|
6 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
|
7 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
|
8 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
|
9 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
|
10 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
|
11 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
|
12 |
1 |
0.008 |
0.86 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
1 |
0.008 |
Note. IA: Agreement Index
Figure 1 illustrates the confirmatory factor
analysis (CFA) of the EMS-Sexism-12. The evaluation followed the
goodness-of-fit criteria recommended by Whittaker and Schumacker (2022).
According to their guidelines, a Comparative Fit Index (CFI) and Tucker-Lewis
Index (TLI) greater than 0.90 are considered acceptable for evaluating model
fit quality. Similarly, root mean square error of
approximation (RMSEA) and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) values
of ≤0.08 are deemed acceptable, with values ≤0.05 considered optimal.
Figure 1. Confirmatory
factor analysis with the DWLS method.
The original model yielded the following fit
indices: χ²/df = 6.5, p < .001; CFI = .94; TLI =
.92; RMSEA = .107; SRMR = .07. These results indicated that the unidimensional
model of the EMS did not fit the data adequately.
DISCUSSION
The present research had machismo as a study variable, which is defined
as the control exercised by a man over a woman in relation to the expression of
their sexuality (Silva and Zavala, 2020). These types of attitudes and
behaviors of superiority represent a latent risk due to their relationship with
violence (Huamani et al., 2019) and the increase in this in recent years (INEI,
2022; INEI 2023; MIMP, 2024). Likewise, it affects the right to sexual freedom,
decision-making and access to health, generating more inequality between
genders (UNFPA, 2020).
In our Peruvian context, it is important to validate a scale related to
machismo according to the indicators of violence and the machista
positions that justify it (IEP, 2023). That is why, under this premise, the
present study analyzed the psychometric properties of the EMS -12 by the
authors Díaz Rodríguez et al. (2010) in a Piura sample where both sexes were
considered, given that machismo is a problem that is not limited only to women
(PAHO, 2019).
To achieve the research objectives, the scale was subjected to
evaluation by a group of judges, the CFA and a reliability test. Based on the
results obtained, it was evident that the instrument is suitable for
application in Piura.
Likewise, it reflects a model that adjusts to the acceptable values of
the different analyses. Which agrees with the study by Huamani et al. (2019)
where the version of this unidimensional questionnaire is made up of 12 items
that represent the sexual machismo variable that obtained similar validity and
reliability values in a considerable sample of both sexes in the city of
Arequipa, a context belonging to the Peruvian reality and differs from the
study. In the same way, similar results were obtained to the study by Silva et
al., (2020) since the authors validated the unidimensional scale with
satisfactory adjustment indicators taking indicators such as CFI, RMSEA
obtaining a scale suitable for the Brazilian population. At a specific level,
we sought to obtain content validity of the EMS, through Aiken's V where the
elements of the scale were subjected to expert judgment, where values from 0.86
and 1.00 were found. This means that the items are valid as suggested by Ruiz
and Cornejo (2021), the values closest to 1 are understood as elements with
greater content validity, coinciding with the study carried out by Cajachagua and Díaz (2022) where the scale was subjected to
analysis by 7 expert judges who considered the reagents to be appropriate,
which implies adequate sufficiency, clarity, relevance and coherence for
application in the sample.
In the analysis of the validity of the internal structure through the
CFA with the unidimensional model, modifications of residual covariances were
made in items 1 “That only the man has sex before marriage” with Item 3 “That
only the man has sexual experience ” and Items 11 “The man must start his
sexual life in adolescence and 12” The man must make his son start his sexual
life” obtaining a respecified model. This residual covariance process coincides
with what was applied in the research of Herrera et al., (2020) where they
considered correlating items 1 and 3, managing to improve the model fit indices
in a Peruvian population, however, they were unable to confirm the model.
This final model achieved adequate fit indices, reporting indicators of
X2(df) = 219.02(52), p = .001; IFC = .96; TLI = .95;
RMSEA = .08; SRMR = .06. Taking as reference the goodness-of-fit measures
suggested by Whittaker and Schumacker (2022), who argue that scores greater
than 0.90 for CFI and TLI are considered adequate to evaluate the quality of
model fit. Likewise, the RMSEA index and SRMR that are less than or equal to
0.08 are considered acceptable. In turn, RMSEA and SRMR with values less than
or equal to 0.05 are classified as optimal.
The results of this finding differ from what was reported by Herrera
(2020) where, despite obtaining adequate validity indices, the original 12-item
model was not confirmed after eliminating one of them. However, it coincides
with the studies of Álvarez and Noreña (2023) in their research in the
Colombian Caribbean with satisfactory goodness-of-fit indices; GFI=.98;
CFI=.98; TLI=.97; RMSEA=0.08 and SRMR=.05. However, it differs from what was
obtained in the research study by Silva et al. (2020) in which the
goodness-of-fit indices are results.
Finally, the last objective was to establish the reliability of the
instrument applied to adults in the city of Piura, using the Omega coefficient,
obtaining from its only dimension a reliability score of .83 with a confidence
interval of 95%; being highly favorable for exceeding levels greater than 0.8,
this indicates that the scale is consistent over time and is within acceptable
reliability indices.
The result of the present study is supported by the various
investigations carried out previously that have shown that the EMS has
acceptable reliability values (Álvarez and Noreña, 2023; Herrera et al., 2020;
Huamani, et al., 2023). On the other hand, studies based on Cronbach's alpha
coefficient were observed that obtained adequate reliability values (Camacho,
2020; López-Silva et al., 2020). By observing these results, it can be
confirmed that this scale has stability in its results despite the time in which
it was created in the different populations in which it has been applied, both
young people and adults, as evidenced by studies carried out to date
demonstrating that it has a level of reliability that is applicable in various
Latin American populations.
Strengths and limitations of the study
Despite showing adequate validity and reliability of the scale, it is
necessary to consider some limitations, such as using non-probabilistic
sampling due to its accessibility to the sample; Considering probability
sampling could ensure a more representative sample, less risk of bias, and
better generalization of results. On the other hand, it is also considered
necessary to reduce the virtual application that may generate some biases in
the responses; however, a large part of the sample were in-person applications;
likewise, it would be ideal for these findings to complement each other. in our
context with invariance analysis and with other sources of validity, such as,
for example, evidence based on the relationship with other variables.
In clinical contexts, its application helps to identify problems related
to sexist attitudes or gender violence. The validation of the scale provides an
important basis that allows the design and implementation of prevention and
intervention programs in vulnerable populations, promoting relationships based
on mutual respect and reducing inequality gaps. Likewise, in social contexts,
it is useful to raise awareness among the population about gender equality,
prevent sexual violence and guide public policies.
Conclusion
Based on the previously established objectives, it is determined that
the psychometric properties of the sexual machismo scale have validity and
reliability indices, so it is concluded that the sexual machismo scale is a
valid and reliable instrument for its application in the Piura´s population.
ORCID
Esther Gonzales Ortiz https://orcid.org/0009-0008-8129-5213
AUTHORS’
CONTRIBUTION
Esther Gonzales Ortiz: Conception of the
manuscript, data collection, statistical analysis, interpretation of the data,
writing of the manuscript.
FUNDING
This research was self-funded.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The author declare that he don’t have conflict of interest.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Not applicable.
REVIEW PROCESS
This study has been reviewed by external peers in double-blind mode.
The editor in charge was David
Villarreal-Zegarra. The review process is included as
supplementary material 1.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The authors attach the database as supplementary material 2.
DECLARATION OF THE USE OF GENERATIVE ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE
The author declares that he has not used tools generated by artificial
intelligence to create paper, nor technological assistants for writing. The
final version of the paper was reviewed and approved by the same author.
DISCLAIMER
The author is responsible for all statements made in this article.
REFERENCES
Álvarez, N., & Noreña ,
M. (2023). Psychometric Analysis of the Sexual Machism
Scale (EMS-12) in Colombian Caribbean university students. Avances en Psicología, 31(1), e2760. https://doi.org/10.33539/avpsicol.2023.v31n1.2760
Ato, M., López, J., & Benavente, A. (2013). A classification system for research designs in
psychology. Anales de Psicología / Annals of Psychology,
29(3), 1038–1059. http://dx.doi.org/10.6018/analesps.29.3.178511
Camacho, D. (2020). Propiedades psicométricas de la Escala de
Machismo Sexual (EMS-Sexismo-12) en una muestra del norte de México. Enseñanza
e Investigación en Psicología, 2(3), 424-429.
Castañeda, M. (2019). El machismo invisible. España: Editorial
Debolsillo.
Campo-Arias, A., & Oviedo, H. C. (2008). Psychometric properties of a scale: internal
consistency. Revista de salud pública, 10(5), 831-839.
Cho, G., Hwang, H., Sarstedt, M., & Ringle, Ch. M.
(2020). Cutoff criteria for overall model fit indexes in generalizedstructured component analysis. Journal
of Marketing Analytics, 8, 189–202. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41270-020-00089-1
Colegio de Psicólogos del
Perú (2018). Código de ética profesional. Perú: Colegio de
Psicólogos del Perú.
Cianelli R, Villegas N, Lawson S, Ferrer L, Kaelber L,
Peragallo N, & Yaya A. (2013). Unique factors that place older Hispanic
women at risk for HIV: intimate partner violence, machismo, and marianismo. Journal
of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 24(4):341-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jana.2013.01.009
Díaz, C., Rosas, M. & Gonzales, M. (2010). Escala de machismo
sexual (EMSSexismo-12). Summa Psicológica
UST, 7(2), 35-44. http://dx.doi.org/10.18774/448x.2010.7.121
Escobedo Portillo, María Teresa, Hernández Gómez, Jesús Andrés, Estebané Ortega, Virginia, & Martínez Moreno,
Guillermina. (2016). Structural
equation modeling: Features, phases, construction, implementation and results. Ciencia
& trabajo, 18(55), 16-22. https://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0718-24492016000100004
Etikan,
I., & Bala, K. (2017). Sampling and sampling methods [Muestreo y
Métodos de Muestreo]. Biometrics & Biostatistics
International Journal, 5(6), 215-217. https://doi.org/10.15406/bbij.2017.05.00149
Fondo de la Población de las Naciones Unidas. (2020). Tracking women’s decision-making for sexual
and reproductive health and reproductive rights.
https://www.unfpa.org/resources/tracking-womens-decision-making-sexual-and-reproductive-health-and-reproductive-rights
Glick, P. & Fiske, T. (1996). The Ambivalent
Sexism Inventory: Differentiating Hostile and Benevolent Sexism. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 70(3), 491-512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.491
Hernández-Sampieri, R. & Mendoza, C (2018). Metodología de la investigación: las rutas: cuantitativa y
cualitativa y mixta. México: Mc Graw
Hill- educación.
Herrera, D., Mamani, V., Arias, W.., & Rivera, R. (2019).
Análisis psicométrico de la Escala de Machismo Sexual en estudiantes
universitarios peruanos y chilenos. Revista de psicología (Santiago), 28(2),
64-74. https://dx.doi.org/10.5354/0719-0581.2019.55806
Huamani, J., Ojeda, E., Arias, W., Ceballos, F. & Calizaya, J.
(2023). Análisis psicométrico de la Escala de Machismo Sexual (EMS-Sexismo-12)
en estudiantes universitarios de Arequipa, Perú. Interacciones, 9, e301.
https://dx.doi.org/10.24016/2023.v9.301
Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática (2022). Perú:
Encuesta Demográfica y de Salud Familiar Endes 2022.
Instituto nacional de Estadística e Informática (25 de noviembre
del 2023). El 35,6% de mujeres de entre 15 y 49 años ha sido víctima de
violencia familiar en los últimos 12 meses [Nota de prensa]. https://m.inei.gob.pe/media/MenuRecursivo/noticias/nota-de-prensa-n-180-2023-inei.pdf
Instituto de estudio peruanos. (2023). Informe de Opinión –
Edición especial por el Día Internacional de la Eliminación de la violencia
contra la mujer. https://iep.org.pe/noticias/iep-informe-de-opinion-noviembre-2023-edicion-especial-25n/
Lai, K. (2020). Fit Difference Between Nonnested Models Given Categorical Data: Measures and
Estimation. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 28(1),
99–120. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2020.1763802
Lopes, F, Gomes, L., Veloso, V., Najda de Medeiros.,
& Florencio A. (2020). Escala de
Machismo Sexual. Evidências Psicométricas em Contexto
Brasileiro. Avaliaçao Psicologica
Interamerican Journal of Psychological Assessment. 19(4). 420-429. http://dx.doi.org/10.15689/ap.2020.1904.15892.08
Lloret-Segura, Susana, Ferreres-Traver,
Adoración, Hernández-Baeza, Ana, & Tomás-Marco, Inés. (2014). El Análisis
Factorial Exploratorio de los Ítems: una guía práctica, revisada y actualizada.
Anales de Psicología, 30(3), 1151-1169. http://dx.doi.org/10.6018/analesps.30.3.199361
Ministerio de la mujer y poblaciones vulnerables. (2024). Boletín
estadístico febrero 2024. https://portalestadistico.aurora.gob.pe/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/BV-Febrero-2024.pdf
Moya M, Expósito F. (2001). Nuevas formas, viejos intereses. Neosexismo en varones españoles. Psicothema.
13(4): 643-49.
Organización Panamericana de la Salud. (2029).
Masculinities and Health in the Region of the Americas. https://iris.paho.org/handle/10665.2/51804
Sánchez, J. (2022). Análisis de las propiedades psicométricas de
la escala de machismo sexual (EMS-Sexismo - 12) en jóvenes de Lima
Metropolitana, 2022. [Tesis de pregrado, Universidad Cesar Vallejo].
Repositorio Institucional. https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12692/109385
Silva, C. & Zavala A.( February
29, 2020). Sexual machism and Marianism in couple relations. A
bibliographical review.[ Congreso]. IV International
Congress of Research in Health Sciences and I International Seminar on
Nutrition and Food Safety.Ambato, Ecuador. Medwave,
20(1), 3. http://doi.org/10.5867/Medwave.2020.S1.CS06
Universidad Cesar Vallejo. (2020). Código de ética en
investigación de la Universidad Cesar Vallejo.
Whittaker, T. y Schumacker, R. (2022). A beginner’s
guide to Structural Equation Modeling. (5th ed). Routledge Taylor y Francis
Group
Xia, Y., & Yang, Y. (2019). RMSEA, CFI, and TLI in
structural equation modeling with ordered categorical data: The story they tell
depends on the estimation methods. Behavior Research Method, 51, 409 - 428. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-018-1055-2